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سیاسی و روابط بین الملل::
کمون دهقانی
In contrast, 'in Russian public life, the individual is the first element', he insisted.44 In particular, the peasant commune in medieval Rus cherished the individual without suppressing him in any way.
After the 1848 revolutions in Europe, Herzen's representation of the Russian peasant commune as the embodiment of western Europe's own ideals of egalitarianism and democracy shaped the subsequent debates among the Populists and impacted on Russian Marxists.
Under the influence of Hegel's philosophy of history, Chernyshevsky then argued that 'the highest stage of development is similar in form to the beginning from which it proceeds', hence socialism based on communes was the future of Europe in its entirety.57 A negative image of western capitalism became central to the ideology of the classical Populists, whose ideas Andrzej Walicki aptly described as a 'response to the image of capitalist development in Western socialist thought ... by the democratic intelligentsia in a backward peasant country at an early stage of capitalist development'.58 Like Herzen, the Populists idealised the peasant commune and, following Chernyshevsky, believed in the eventual return of western Europe to communal principles.
Thus, Bakunin insisted that the attitude towards the land and principles of self-government in the Russian peasant commune '[i]n essence ... fully correspond[s] to the ideas which have of late been taking shape in the consciousness of the proletariat of Latin countries'.59
However, following his emigration to the West and subsequent disillusionment at the failure of the revolutions of 1848 to sweep away the old order, Herzen broke with the Westernisers and began to look eastward, to Russia's peasant commune, as his ideal society.43 In the context of his evolving political ideas, Asia came to acquire for Herzen both a positive and a negative meaning.
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